Cognitive theory
Cognitive psychology focuses on the processes that occur between a stimulus and a response. This branch of psychology is closely associated with the work of Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. Piaget’s model of cognitive development, in particular, has had a significant impact on the field. According to Piaget, the human mind evolves over time in response to environmental stimulation. During the ages of 0–2, a child develops basic mental structures known as schemata. These initial schemata are instinctive and limited, serving as the foundation for more complex cognitive development.
A baby begins life with basic schemata, such as a "crying schema," a "grasping schema," and a "feeding schema." These fundamental thought processes evolve around the age of 2 as the child develops the ability to speak and acquires what Piaget refers to as symbolic thought.
Between the ages of 2 and 7, a child’s problem-solving abilities remain limited due to two key concepts introduced by Piaget: centration and egocentrism. Centration refers to the child’s tendency to focus on one aspect of a situation while overlooking the bigger picture. For instance, a child in this age range might believe that a ton of lead is heavier than a ton of feathers, focusing solely on the idea that lead is a dense metal and ignoring the fact that both quantities are equal in weight.
Egocentrism, on the other hand, describes the child’s difficulty in viewing a problem from a perspective other than their own understanding of reality. For example, if a child aged 2–7 is asked what noise a reindeer makes, they might respond with "clip clop," assuming that reindeer, which resemble horses, would make the same sound. This response reflects the child’s reliance on their own limited knowledge.
Piaget suggests that to move beyond this developmental stage, children must engage with their environment through play, which allows them to explore, experiment, and refine their understanding of the world.
With linguistic development, the infant’s capacity for more complex thought grows, and by the age of 7, the preoperational stage ends. At this point, the child enters the concrete operational stage, characterized by an improved ability to solve problems. According to Piaget, children between the ages of 7 and 11 require tangible objects, or "props," to aid in problem-solving. For instance, a child in this stage can calculate that 3 apples plus 2 apples equal 5 apples, but they often need the actual apples present to complete the task.
As children interact with these props, they develop what Piaget calls reversible thinking. This stage, which emerges around age 11, marks the final phase of cognitive development. Reversible thinking allows problem-solving to occur mentally, without the need for physical objects. For example, a child can recognize mentally that 3 + 2 is the same as 5 - 2, demonstrating the flexibility of their thought processes.
Lev Vygotsky’s work complements Piaget’s theory, offering a perspective that places greater emphasis on social influences in cognitive development. One of Vygotsky’s central concepts is the idea of a scaffold—a supportive network of individuals who aid a child’s cognitive growth. The nature of this scaffold can have a positive or negative impact. For example, peers who value academic pursuits can foster intellectual growth, while less supportive social environments may hinder it.
Vygotsky’s theory helps explain why some individuals, often referred to as "late developers," reach the stage of reversible thinking beyond the age of 11. His concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) refers to the point at which an individual realizes their cognitive potential. This milestone may occur at age 11 or later, depending on the quality of the individual’s scaffold and the social factors influencing their development. Vygotsky’s framework thus enriches Piaget’s theory by highlighting the critical role of social interaction in shaping cognitive growth.